Evaluating the potential of carbon sequestration and global warming potential for saffron fields (Case study: Khorasan-e Razavi Province)

Document Type : original paper

Abstract

Introduction
Increases in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere have prompted renewed interest in enhancing the soil pools of carbon in the agroecosystems to mitigate climate change and global warming and also improve quality of soil. The soil organic carbon (SOC) pool represents a dynamic equilibrium of gains and losses of carbon. Conversion of natural ecosystems to agroecosystems causes depletion of the SOC pools. The depletion is intensified when the output of carbon exceeds the input and when soil degradation is intensity. Terrestrial ecosystems contributed to atmospheric CO2 enrichment.
Carbon sequestration implies transferring atmospheric CO2 into long-lived pools and storing it securely so it is not immediately loosed. Thus, soil carbon sequestration means improving SOC and soil inorganic carbon pools through land use and recommended management practices.
Our purposes were to determine a set of coefficients for calculating conversion coefficients, dry weight, organic carbon and carbon sequestration of above-ground and below-ground tissues for saffron in Khorasan-e Razavi province.

Materials and Methods
A survey experiment was conducted based on a completely randomized design during 2016. Sampling was performed with random-systematic method from 10 fields by using 30 plots of 0.5 m2 and along three transects of 50 m. Below-ground tissues by using cylinder were manually sampled and then separated from the soil. After sampling, the above-ground tissues (such as flower and leaf) were separated from below-ground tissues (including tunic and corm) as to measure the above-ground and below-ground biomasses, respectively. Above-ground and below-ground biomasses were separately dried to constant weight and expressed on a dry matter basis. Conversion coefficients of above- ground and below- ground tissues were determined with combustion method separately. Then, sequestration carbon potential for above- ground and below- ground tissues of saffron and soil were computed.
Final, after the calculation of emission for greenhouse gases including CO2, N2O and CH4 based on emission indices, global warming potential (GPW) were calculated.
For statistical analysis, analysis of variance and least significant difference (LSD) were performed using SAS version 9.3.

Results
The results showed that dry weights, organic carbon contents, conversion coefficients and carbon sequestration for above- ground and below- ground tissues of saffron were significantly different. Biomass of below- ground tissues were higher than above- ground tissues. The highest and lowest carbon sequestration for above- ground and below- ground tissues were calculated for corm and flower with 5.83 and 0.14 t.ha-1, respectively. The highest emission of greenhouse gas was belonged to fossil fuels with 39.78 kg. Equiv. CO2 and GWP was computed 7.21 t Equiv. CO2 per one ha.

Conclusion
It is therefore concluded that organic management and use of crop residues, cow manure and organic fertilizers seems to be a rational ecological approach for sustainable management of saffron agroecosystem with a consequence of reduction in greenhouse gases and mitigation of climate change.

Keywords

Main Subjects


1. Abdi, N., Maadah Arefi, H. and Zahedi Amiri, G. 2008. Estimation of carbon sequestration in Astragalus rangelands of Markazi province (Case study: Malmir rangeland in Shazand region). Iran. J. Range Desert Resour., 15: 2.269-282. (In Persian with English Summary)
2. Abdullaer, F. and Espinosa-Agirre, J.J. 2004. Biomedical properties of saffron and its potential use in cancer therapy and chemoprevention trials cancer detection and prevention. Cancer Detect. Prevn., 23: 426-432.
3. Abrishamchi, P. 2003. Investigatuon about some biochemical changes related to breaking of dormancy and flower formation in Crocus sativus L. 3rd National Symposium on Saffron. Proceedings of the 3rd National Symposium on Saffron. Mashhad, Iran, 2-3 December, p. 19-27. (In Persian with English Summary)
4. Afrazeh, Z., Bolandi, M., Khorshidi, M. and Mohammadi Nafchi, A. 2014. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of aqueous and alcoholic extracts (methanol, ethanol) saffron petals. Saffron Agron. Tech., 2(3): 231-236. (In Persian with English Summary)
5. Arslan, N., Gubruz, B., Đpek, A., Özcan, S., Sarthan, E., Daeshian, A. and Moghaddassi, M. 2006. The effect of corm size and different harvesting time on saffron (Crocus sativus L.) regeneration. II. International Symposium on Saffron: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Technology. Mashhad, Iran, 28-30 October, Pp: 113-117.
6. Azizi Zohan, A.A. and Pasandide, M. 2013. Investigate the causes of the decline in agricultural production after a period of cultivation of saffron. J. Land Manage. 1: 1. 91-98. (In Persian with English Summary)
7. Banaeian, N., Omid, M. and Ahmadi, H. 2011. Energy and economic analysis of greenhouse strawberry production in Tehran province of Iran. Energ. Convers. Manage. 52: 1020-1025.
8. Behniya, M.R. 1991. Saffron. Tehran Univ. Press, 310p. (In Persian)
9. Black, C.A. 1965. Methods of Soil Analysis. (V.I). Am. Soc. Agron. 1572p.
10. Bordbar, S.K. and Mortazavi Jahromi, S.M. 2008. Carbon sequestration potential of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. and Acacia salicina Lindl. plantation in western areas of Fars province. Agron. J. (Pajouhesh Sazandegi). 70: 95-103. (In Persian with English Summary)
11. Chambers, J.C. and Brown, R.E. 1983. Methods for vegetation sampling and analysis on revegetated mined lands. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report. Int.
12. Dastan, S., Soltani, A., Noormohamadi, G. and Madani, H. 2014. CO2 emission and global warming potential (GWP) of energy consumption in paddy field production systems. J. Agroecol. 6(4): 823-835. (In Persian with English Summary)
13. Dayer, J.A. and Desjardins, R.L. 2003. The impact of farm machinery management on the greenhouse gas emissions from Canadian agriculture. J. Sustain. Agric. 22: 59-74.
14. Earth System Research Laboratory. 2016. Ed Dlugokencky and Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL (www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/)
15. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1998. National Air Quality and Emission Trends Report, Report EPA 454/R-00-003, 2000.
16. Fallahi, H.R., Rezvani-Moghaddam, P., Behdani, M.A., Aghhavani-Shajari, M., Jahedi Pour, S. and Yari, A. 2015. Principles of Carbon Sequestration. Jihad Daneshgahi of Mashhad. Press, 351p. (In Persian)
17. Falloon, P.D., Smith1, P., Smith, J.U., Szabó, J., Coleman, K. and Marshall, S. 1998. Regional estimates of carbon sequestration potential: linking the Rothamsted Carbon Model to GIS databases. Biol. Fert. Soil., 27: 3.236-241.
18. Follett, R.F., Castellanos, J.Z. and Buenger, E.D. 2005. Carbon dynamics and sequestration in an irrigated Vertisol in Central Mexico. Soil Till. Res., 83: 148-158.
19. Forouzeh, M.R., Heshmati, G.A., Mesbah, H. and Ghanbarian, G.A. 2008. Effect of floodwater irrigation on carbon sequestration potential of Helianthemum lippii (L.) Pers., Dendrostellera lessertii Van Tiegh. and Artemisia sieberi Besser in the Gareh Bygone plain: A case study. Agron. J. (Pajouhesh Sazandegi). 78: 11-19. (In Persian with English Summary)
20. Ghanbariyan, G., Hasan Li, A. and Rajabi Nooghab, V. 2015. Comparing potential carbon sequestration of different parts of mountain almond and grape plants and soil in Fars province. J. Nat. Environ. 68(2): 257-265. (In Persian with English Summary)
21. Ghorbani, R. and Koocheki, A. 2006. Organic saffron in Iran: prospects challenges. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Technology. Mashhad, Iran, 28-30 October, Pp: 369-374.
22. Gioccio, M. 2004. Crocetin from saffron: an active component of an ancient spice. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 44: 155-172.
23. Guillou, C.L., Angers, D.A., Leterme, P. and Menasseri-Aubry, S. 2011. Differential and successive effects of residue quality and soil mineral N on water-stable aggregation during crop residue decomposition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 43: 1955-1960.
24. Hasannezhad, M., Tamartash, R. and Tatiyan, M.R. 2014. Comparison of carbon sequestration of Astragalus gossypinus and Dactylis glomerata species in Hezarjarib mountainous rangelands, Behshahr. J. Environ. Stud. 40: 1. 29-38. (In Persian with English Summary)
25. Heinemann, A.B., Maia, H.N., Dourado-Neto, A.D., Ingram, K.T. and Hoogenboom, G. 2005. Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) growth and development response to CO2 enrichment under different temperature regimes. Eur. J. Agron. 24: 52-61.
26. Hill, M.J., Braaten, R. and McKeon, G.M. 2003. A scenario calculator for effects of grazing land management on carbon stocks in Australian rangelands. Environ. Model. Soft. 18: 7. 627-644.
27. IPCC. 2006. IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Intergovernmental panel on climate change. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Reference Manual, Vol. 4.
28. IPCC. 2007. Summary for Policy Makers. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
29. Jafarian, Z. and Tayefeh Seyyed Alikhani, L. 2013. Carbon sequestration potential in dry farmed wheat in Kiasar region. Agric. Knowl. Sustain. Prod. 23: 1. 31-41. (In Persian with English Summary)
30. Jihad Keshavarzi Khorasan Razavi. 2015. Statistical Year book of agriculture. Jihad Keshavarzi Khorasan Razavi. Mashhad, Iran. (In Persian)
31. 31-Kaltsas, A.M., Mamolos, A.P., Tsatsarelis, C.A., Nanos, G.D., and Kalburtji, K.L. 2007. Energy budget in organic and conventional olive groves. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 122(2): 243-251.
32. Khorramdel, S. and Gholizadegan Ehsanabad, A. 2015. Study greenhouse gas emissions and global warming potential production systems potatoes. The first international and the fourth notional conference of IRANs Environmental and Agricultural Research. Hamedan, Iran, 26 November 2015. http://www.civilica.com/Paper-NCER04-NCER04_062.html. (In Persian)
33. Khorramdel, S., Rezvani Moghaddam, P. and Jafari, L. 2016. Evaluating the potential of carbon sequestration for canola fields under Khorasan Razavi. Sci. Nat. Resour. 9(3): 22-43. (In Persian with English Summary)
34. Khorramdel, S., Shabahang, J., Amin Ghafori, A. and Gholizadegan Ehsanabad, A. 2015. Evaluating the greenhouse gas emissions in Pistachio production (Case study: Khorasan). First international congress of Healthy Agriculture, Healthy Nutrient and San Society. Tehran, Iran, July. (In Persian)
35. Khorramdel, S., Koocheki, A. and Rezazadeh, M. 2014. The effects of climate change and global warming potential on biodiversity. National Conference on Climate Change and Engineering Agric. Natural Resources. Hamedan, Iran, 26 June 2014. http://www.civilica.com/Paper-CCASD01-CCASD01_255.html (In Persian)
36. Khorramdel, S., Mollafilabi, A. and Gholizadegan Ehsanabad, A. 2015. Evaluating the global warming potential in saffron production (Case study: Khorasan). International conference on sustainable development with a focus on agriculture, environment and tourism. Tabriz, Iran, 16-17 September 2015. http://www.civilica.com/Paper-ICDAT01-ICDAT01_068.html. (In Persian)
37. Koocheki, A., Ganjeali, A. and Abbassi, F. 2006. The effect of duration of incubation and photoperiod on corm and shoot characteristics of saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.). Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Technology. Mashhad, Iran, 28-30 October. Pp: 61-70.
38. Koocheki, A., Tabrizi, L., Jahani, M. and Mohamad Abadi, A.A. 2011. The effect of high density and depth of planting on agronomic characteristic of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and corms behavior. Agroecol. 3: 36- 40. (In Persian with English Summary)
39. Kukal, S.S., Rasool, R. and Benbi, D.K. 2009. Soil organic carbon sequestration in relation to organic and inorganic fertilization in rice–wheat and maize–wheat systems. Soil Till. Res. 102: 87–92.
40. Lal, R. 2003. Global potential of soil carbon sequestration to mitigate the greenhouse effect, Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 22: 2. 151-184.
41. Lal, R. and Kimble, J.M. 1997. Conservation tillage for carbon sequestration. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 49(1-3): 243-253.
42. Lal, R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change, Geoderma. 123: 1-22.
43. Ma, Z. 1999. Carbon sequestration by switchgrass. PhD Thesis of Graduated Faculty of Auburn, University, Alabama. 124p.
44. McCarty, G.W. and Ritcher, J.C. 2000. Impact of soil movement on carbon sequestration in agricultural ecosystems. Advances in Terrestrial Ecosystem Carbon Inventory, Measurements, and Monitoring Conference. In Raleigh, North Carolina 3-5.
45. Meteorological Organization of Khorasan Razavi. http://www.razavimet.ir/fa/node/38. (In Persian)
46. Mohammad Abadi, A.A., RezvaniMoghaddam, P. and Sabori, A. 2006. Effect of plant distance on flower yield and qualitative and quantitative characteristics of forage production of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Mashhad conditions. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Technology. Mashhad, Iran, 28-30 October. Pp: 151-153.
47. Moradi, M. 2008. Economic and environmental study Iran's Zagros forests (Case study: Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad). Ph.D. Thesis of Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch of Tehran. 299p. (In Persian with English Summary)
48. Mortenson, M. and Schuman, G. 2002. Carbon sequestration in rangeland interseeded with yellow-flowering alfalfa (Medicago sativa Spp. Falcata) USDA Symposium on Natural Resource Management to Offset Greenhouse Gas Emission in University of Wyoming.
49. Najmoddini, N. 2013. Effects of mechanical structural operations to improve watershed management in carbon sequestration for climate change mitigation (Case Study: Watershed Gavdareh in Kurdistan province). The 2nd National Conference on Climate Change and Agriculture, August 23, Urmia, Iran. (In Persian)
50. Nassiri Mahallati, M., Koocheki, A., Mansoori, H. and Moradi, R. 2015. Long term estimation of carbon dynamic and sequestration for Iranian agro-ecosystem: I- Net primary productivity and annual carbon input for common agricultural crops. J. Agroecol. 6(4): 741-752. (In Persian with English Summary)
51. Nobakht, A., Pourmajidian, M., Hojjati, S.M. and Fallah, A. 2011. A comparison of soil carbon sequestration in hardwood and softwood monocultures (Case study: Dehmian forest management plan, Mazindaran). Iran. J. Forest. 3: 1. 13-23. (In Persian with English Summary)
52. Nosetto, M.D., Jobbagy, E.G. and Paruelo, J.M. 2006. Carbon sequestration in semi-arid rangelands: comparison of Pinus ponderosa plantations and grazing exclusion in NW Patagonia. J. Arid Environ., 67: 142-156.
53. Polidori, A., Turpin, B.J., Davidson, C.I., Rodenburg, L.A. and Maimone, F. 2008. Organic PM 2.5: fractionation by polarity, FTIR spectroscopy, and OM/OC ratio for the Pittsburgh aerosol. Aerosol. Sci. Technol., 42: 233-246.
54. Poor Asghar Sangachin, F. 2007. Look at the state of forest destruction in Iran and the world. J. Sustain. Dev. Environ., 1: 3. 36-69. (In Persian with English Summary)
55. Prior, S.A., Torbert, H.A., Runion, G.B., Rodgers, H.H., Wood, C.W., Kimball, B.A., LaMorte, R.L., Pinter, P.J. and Wall, G.W. 1997. Free- air carbon dioxide enrichment of wheat: soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics. J. Environ. Qual., 26: 1161-1166.
56. Rodhe, H. 1990. A comparison of the contribution of various gases to the greenhouse. Sci. 248: 1217-1219.
57. Roozi Talab, M.H. 2007. Effects of climate change on agriculture and stability of arid and semiarid soils in Iran and the world. Tenth Congress of Soil Science. Karaj, Iran, 26-28 August. (In Persian)
58. Schimel, D.S. 1995. Terrestrial ecosystems and the carbon cycle. Glob. Change Biol., 1: 1. 77–91.
59. Smit, B. and Skinner, M.W. 2002. Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: a
typology. Mitig. Adapt. Strat. Glob. Chang., 7: 85–114.
60. Smith, P. and Fang, C.M. 2010. Carbon cycle: a warm response by soils. Nature. 464: 499–500.
61. Smith, W.N., Grant, B., Desgardins, R.L., Lemke, R. and Li, C. 2004. Emission of the inter annual N2O emission from agricultural soils in Canada. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 68: 37-45.
62. Snyder, C.S., Bruulsema, T.W., Jensen, T.L. and Fixen, P.E. 2009. Review of greenhouse gas emissions from crop production systems and fertilizer management effects. Agric. Ecosys. Environ., 133: 247-266.
63. Tamartash, R., Tatian, M.R. and Yousefian, M. 2012. The ability of different vegetative forms to carbon sequestration in plain rangeland of Miankaleh. J. Environ. Stud., 38: 62. 45-54. (In Persian with English Summary)
64. Tarkalson, D.D., Brown, B., Kok, H. and Bjorneberg, D.L. 2009. Irrigated small-grain residue management effects on soil chemical and physical properties and nutrient cycling. Soil Sci. 174: 303-311.
65. Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D.J., May, M., Lewis, K.A. and Jaggard, K. 2005. An assessment of the energy inputs and greenhouse gas emissions in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) production in the UK. Agric. Syst., 85: 101-119.
66. Walkley, A. and Black, I. 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 37: 29-38.
67. Wiesmeier, M., Hübner, R., Spörlein, P., Geuß, U., Hangen, E., Reischl, A., Schilling, B., Lützow, M. and Kögel-Knabner, I. 2014. Carbon sequestration potential of soils in southeast Germany derived from stable soil organic carbon saturation. Glob. Change Biol. 20: 2. 653–665.
68. Wood, S. and Cowie, A. 2004. A review of greenhouse gas emission factors for fertilizer production. Research and Development Division, State Forests of New South Wales. Cooperative Research Center for Greenhouse Accounting.
69. Yousefi, M., Mahdavi Damghani, A.M. and Khorramivafa, M. 2014. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and assessment of sustainability index in corn agroecosystems of Iran. Sci. Total Environ. 493: 330–335.
70. Zhang, L., Zhuang, Q., He, Y., Liu, Y., Dongsheng, Y., Zhao, Q., Shi, X., Xing, S. and Wang, G. 2016. Toward optimal soil organic carbon sequestration with effects of agricultural management practices and climate change in Tai-Lake paddy soils of China. Geoderma. 275: 28–39.